Ch 9 and 10

How are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis different? Osteoarthritis usually affects people 60 or older and is caused by increasing wear and tear at the joint surfaces or from genetic factors affecting collagen formation. On the other hand rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory condition. It is caused by the body attacking its own tissues as well as allergies, bacteria, viruses, and other genetic factors. 2) When the triceps brachii muscle contracts, what movements does it produce? When the triceps brachii muscle contracts, it produces extension of the arm. ) Why is the inferior region of the shoulder joint most vulnerable to dislocation? It is most vulnerable to dislocation because it is the most mobile synovial joint. Because of this it is frail and relies only on the surrounding ligaments, muscles, and tendons for stability. 4) A high school student comes to the emergency room complaining of persistent pain and stiffness in her shoulder joint. In talking with her, you discov er that she has been spending many hours trying to improve her pitching skills for her school's softball team.What is likely causing the pain? A shoulder subluxation is most likely causing her pain. This is a partial dislocation of the shoulder and is caused by her overusing her shoulder. This may cause a loose shoulder where her shoulder capsule will be stretched out as well as the ligaments. This could further lead to chronic shoulder instability. 5) Mary wants to enter a weight-lifting competition and consults you as to what type of muscle fibers she needs to develop and how she should go about it. What would you suggest to her?Mary needs to develop her fast muscle fibers. In order to do this, she will need to have frequent, brief and intensive workouts. She also needs to create muscle hypertrophy which will create an enlargement of the stimulated muscle. She can gain this by repeated and exhaustive stimulation which will create more mitochondria. With repeatedly stimulated muscl es she can create near-maximal tension. 6) Describe the basic sequence of events that occurs at the neuromuscular junction and in the muscle cell.The first step is the arrival of an action potential at the synaptic terminal, next is the release of acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft, then Ach binds at the motor end plate and causes sodium-ion to rush into sarcoplasm which is then quickly broken down by AChE. The last step is it returns to initial state which occurs if another action potential arrives at the NMJ. 7) Many visceral smooth muscle cells lack motor neuron innervation. How are their contractions coordinated and controlled? Visceral smooth muscle cell’s contractions are coordinated by rhythmic cycles of activity that are controlled by pacesetter cells. ) A hypothetical genetic disease causes the body to produce antibodies that compete with acetylcholine for receptors on the motor end plate. Patients with this disease exhibit varying degrees of muscle weakness and f laccid paralysis in the affected muscles. If you could administer a drug that inhibits acetylcholinesterase or a drug that blocks acetylcholine, which one would you use to alleviate these symptoms? I would use a drug that inhibits acetylcholinesterase so that acetylcholine is not blocked.If the disease is producing antibodies that compete with acetylcholine than we would not want a drug that blocks it, we would want to inhibit it to activate the muscles. 9) Thirty minutes after Mary has completed a 25-km race, she begins to notice severe muscle soreness and stiffness in her legs. Her urine is dark colored. She wonders whether she may have damaged her muscles during the race. She visits the ER, and the doctor orders several blood tests. What kind of blood tests can help determine whether muscle damage has occurred?The type of blood tests that can help determine whether muscle damage has occurred include Creatine kinase tests, blood enzyme tests, kidney tests, electrolytes tests, red blood cells tests, and a complete blood count test. 10) Describe a motor unit. How many fibers does a muscle unit contain? A motor unit is controlled by a single motor neuron. It contains hundreds of muscle fibers that contract at the same time. All of the fibers will be the same type and the number of muscle fibers will vary within each unit. Usually, the number of muscle fibers innervated by a motor unit is a purpose of a muscle's need for polished motion

Analysis on Olin Corporation

Olin differentiates itself from competitors by focusing the merchant market. Sales and growth This is a cyclical industry. This cyclical arises because supply is limited by the physical capacity of manufacturing facilities and ability to sell the co-product. Given these are commodity products, prices are very responsive to changes in supply and demand. Timing capacity growth with the cycle leads to a growth in sales. Demand for end-products ultimately drives demand for Color Alkali. The energy advantage North America has by using natural gas instead of crude oil has grown exports of end-products.Customers Most of sales are to the merchant market. The company is able to capture a greater hare of the merchant chlorine market than its overall share of the market capacity because it focuses on the merchant market instead of using the products in downstream production. Costs and Suppliers Almost 50% of production costs is raw materials. The two major needs are electricity and salt. Electr icity comes from coal, hydroelectric, natural gas and nuclear power. Regulatory Olin must comply with legislation regarding the environment, such as air, water and land quality, which requires capital expenditures and increases operation costs.The company has programs in place to minimize waste and prevent pollution. Legislation as passed in October 2009 surrounding the use of mercury cell technology, but expired without enactment. This would have increased the costs of operating mercury cell capacity, of which Olin has one facility. Since it is uncertain whether something similar will happen in the future, Olin chose to convert its mercury cell capacity now, that lead to a restructuring charge incurred in 2010. Winchester Olin has held Winchester for 80 years. Winchester is â€Å"the premier developer and manufacturer of small caliber ammunition†.Production is located in East Alton, IL, but new plans were announced in 2010 to move this operation to Oxford, MS. This would be the most modern production facility in North America and reduce operating costs by $30 million. Competitive environment The ammunition industry creates branded consumer products. Factors contributing to product differentiation include performance, product innovation and brand recognition. Among competitors, Wellness's NAS Eden addle to leverage I TTS Drain name, making it one of the three largest commercial ammunition manufactures in the United States, along with Lillian Tachometers and Remington Arms Company.Sales and growth Winchester has been able to drive sales by being a retail brand of choice and an industry innovator. Recently, the company has developed reduced-lead and non-lead products. Sales are seasonal with an increase in sales during the fall hunting season. Several five-year contracts provide stability in future sales going forward. Currently, Winchester does have a backlog of $178. 1 million which is down from the previous year. Customers Customers include retailers, law enforcement agencies, and militaries.Winchester has developed strong relationships with industrial customers, mass merchants, wholesalers and specialty sporting goods retailers. The company also holds several entrants with the U. S. Government, accounting for 5% of sales in 2010. Costs and Suppliers The raw materials needed include copper, ammunition cartridge case cups, and lead, purchased from vendors at the market price plus a conversion charge. Propellant, the other raw material needed, is purchased mostly from one large U. S. Supplier. Management and Ownership Management has a strong understanding of long-term value creation.Olin uses a discounted cash flow model to value the company's goodwill and reviews their assumptions annually and/or when assumptions are changed by circumstances. Olin sees several compensation methods that help align management's interest with shareholders'. A table outlining compensation can be found on page 29 of the appendix. Institutions account f or 80% of the common stock while insiders hold less than 1%. Olin common stock, traded on New York Stock Exchange, has 80. 2 million shares outstanding with an estimated float of 79. 5 million.

Eatright

CHAPTER ONE (1) 1. 0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1. 1INTRODUCTION The game of football of which Americans call soccer, has engulfed the world serving as a means of entertainment for its audiences, profession for those who play the game, business for those who invest in it and finally as a unifying tool for peacemakers. All these have been as a result of the growth of football in these past years. The game of football has grown faster than any other sport in history, doubling in its number of viewers every two to three years (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).The growing importance and popularity given to football as a sport has resulted in enormous researches to determine dietary intakes relevant for individuals undertaking such sport and nutritional influences on soccer performance (Kirkendall et al, 1993). Notwithstanding , the level of seriousness given to the dietary intakes of players and nutritional influences of foods taken, is lower in developing countries than in the developed ones although some aspects of football development has been launched in some of these developing countries.Besides this, a developing country may be rated amongst the third world countries of the world, the Republic of Ghana has found itself swooped along with this pandemic that is virtually ruling the world today. In this case we can cite the case of Egypt, that in the last years have shown a very high growth in football achievements, and the case of Ghana, that has already reached a good level of development of the game with respect to achieving laurels.In the last two decades, this sport has gained tremendous attention by sports scientists (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). The net performance of a football player is as a result of the combination of talent, appropriate training and good nutrition. The latter of which has an effect on the preceding two (talent and appropriate training) has being the aspect neglected by clubs and even players in particular.The dietary pattern and food habits of footba ll players determines their nutritional status, as in eating more, less or just as recommended, eating appropriate or junk foods and as to whether nutrients consumed from food fill gaps created by mechanisms resulting in energy expenditure. The game is characterized by periods of low to moderate aerobic exercise interrupted by frequent activities of short duration and high intensity, such as sprinting, jumping, and tackling.It is obvious that such an energy-demanding sport requires proper dietary programmes that will restore or even super-compensate body energy stores and enhance the activity pattern of players during training and competition (Martin et al, 2006). The energy needs for an individual varies according to their age, sex and the physical activities they perform during the day. Healthy male individuals present an average energy demand of 2900 kcal ·day-1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a professional soccer player's energy demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998). It should be acknowledged that these values for soccer players vary, and energy needs are met if the dietary pattern and food habits of a player provides the recommended requirements coupled with the appropriate physical activity as energy expenditure depends on the frequency and intensity of training sessions, exercises and matches which can affect the nutritional status of an individual (Clark et al, 2003). 1. 2PROBLEM STATEMENTMany researchers have studied the dietary habits of soccer players in an attempt to examine whether the reported diets fulfill dietary recommendations. The vast majority of these studies have examined players at especially Europe and a few times at the southern Americas. A large number of players, however, compete at the African region which is usually a pool from which foreign professional clubs in places like France, England, Italy and Germany choose their members to form their squads.Requirement specifications in these studies are difficult to apply to participants in this part of the world as they differ in terms of the geographical area, climatic and weather condition, morphological and physiological features, social setting, available foods altering patterns and habits-to mention a few (Lemon,1994). Few studies have examined the dietary habits of lower level soccer players. Furthermore, another aspect of particular importance that has not received much attention is the diet of soccer players during the game day and especially the pre-competition meal and the food they consume during after-game recovery.A proper pre-game meal will facilitate body energy stores before competition by helping to top up muscle and liver glycogen stores, something that may enable players to cover greater distances in the field and at higher speeds than they would with suboptimal glycogen levels (Chryssanthopoulos et al, 2009). Also, optimal dietary intake in the hours after the game will ensure rapid recovery (Burke et al, 2003). All participating teams at the 2006 world cup had a nutritionist/dietician in their technical setup (FIFA/F-MARC, 2006).Also 19 out of 20 premier league teams in England have a nutritionist/dietician in their setup (Article-peak performance, 2005). On the contrary, the growing importance given to nutrition in football has not really gained grounds in Africa as out of the 8 teams that participated in the just ended CAF champions’ league, only 2 teams had a nutritionist (CCL report, 2009). In Ghana, research has shown that only two teams out of 16 in the elite division have a nutritionist (Ghanafa. com, 15/01/10).In this case, players are left unguided to develop dietary patterns and food habits that might not be beneficial with respect to their chosen profession. 1. 3PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this study is to assess the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers in Real T amale United Football Club in Tamale Metropolis. 1. 4JUSTIFICATION With the growing interest in football in Sub Saharan Africa, specifically Ghana, there is the need for researches into the nutritional needs of it participants.Most information on dietary patterns, food habits, energy demands, training and conditioning strategies are extrapolated from researches on individuals out of this part of the world especially Europe and the Americas. This research will review the nutrition needs, energy expenditure, dietary patterns and habits of Ghanaian professional footballers and to identify what is not known to serve as a baseline data to encourage research in these populations. It will also establish the demands of a professional footballer in conditions here in Africa, specifically Ghana and also what influences these demands. . 5RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1. 5. 1GENERAL OBJECTIVES The research aims at assessing the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional football ers in the Real Tamale United Football Club which is in the Tamale metropolis. 1. 5. 2SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ?To assess the factors that influence dietary pattern and food habit of footballers. ?To assess the type of foods (macronutrients) commonly consumed by professional footballers. ?To assess the nutritional status of footballers in the club. ?To determine the physical activity level of footballers. To determine average energy expenditure of the footballers. ?To determine whether professional footballers meet their energy requirement. CHAPTER TWO (2) 2. 0LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this literature review is to summarize available research that is related to the concept of the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers and the evaluation of its relevance and effects on nutritional status. The review includes sections devoted to various existing researches on dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers.A second section will take snap shots into sports nutrition, particularly in football (soccer), and a brief description of requirement specifications of dietary intakes for professional footballers. 2. 1 SOME EXISTING RESEARCHES ON DIETARY INTAKES AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS There are quite a number of researches on the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers in the sciences area. Some are still being developed, and yet some are under considerations which are likely to possess some amount of knowledge as the game gains popularity and participation.Whatever be the case, one particular type of research might not contain just too much information or knowledge a professional footballer needs. The opposite is true, as knowledge in the sport does not necessarily trigger appropriate dietary patterns and food habits. As such, it is necessary to know the requirement specifications of participants and compare them to available acce pted research publication requirement specifications for a professional footballer in order to make the best choice.The requirement specifications might take into consideration, the geographical location, climatic and weather conditions, morphological and physiological features, social setting, available foods-just to mention a few. There is no doubt that the type, amount, composition, and timing of food intake can dramatically affect exercise performance, recovery from exercise, body weight and composition, and health (Burke et al, 2003). Good nutritional practice is essential to athletic success by improving the quality of training, maximizing performance and speeding recovery time.Soccer is described as a high intensity intermittent sport involving continual changes in activity (Hargreaves, 1994). When exercise or physical work increase to more than 1 hour per day, the importance of adequate energy and nutrient intakes becomes more critical (Manore, 2004). The dietary patterns an d food habits developed by individuals involved in such energy demanding sport determines their nutrient intake, coupled with demands of physical activity, have a collective influence on performance and nutritional status (Clark et al, 2003). 2. 2DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS OF FOOTBALLERSAll humans eat to survive. They also eat to express appreciation, for a sense of belonging, as part of family customs, for self-realization and due to their occupation and profession. For example, someone who is not hungry may eat a piece of cake that has been baked in his or her honour. People eat according to  learned behaviors  regarding etiquette, meal and snack patterns, acceptable foods, food combinations, and portion sizes. Individuals develop some kind of behaviors as a result of what goes on around them and they maintain these new behaviors as the best suitable for them (Bandura, 1997).The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioural patterns , while also providing the basis for intervention strategies (Bandura, 1997). The more a person is exposed to a food and encouraged to eat it, the greater the chances that the food will be accepted (C. Nti, 2009). As the exposure to a food increases, the person becomes more familiar and less fearful of the food, and acceptance may develop (C. Nti, 2009). Some persons only eat specific foods and flavour combinations, while others like trying different foods and flavors (Rodriguez, 2009). . 2. 1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PATTERNS OF FOOD HABITS To live one must eat. But, we not  only eat to live, what we eat also affects our ability to keep healthy, do work, to be happy and to live well. Knowledge of what to eat and in what quantities is a prerequisite to the healthy and happy life (Rodriguez, 2009). The average nutritional requirements of groups of people are fixed and depend on such measurable characteristics such as age, sex, height, weight, and degree of activity and rate of growth (Martin et al, 2006).Good nutrition requires a satisfactory diet, which is capable of supporting the individual consuming it, in a state of good health by providing the desired nutrients in required amounts. It must provide the right amount of fuel to execute normal physical activity. If the total amount of nutrients provided in the diet is insufficient, a state of under nutrition will develop. What and how people eat is determined by a variety of factors, including economic circumstances, cultural norms, and religious restrictions  (Judith C. Rodriguez, 2009).Some factors influencing food choices include preferences, ethnicity, values, habits, availability, health and nutrition. Dietary patterns, which are affected by a number of reasons, some of which are enumerated above, determine the nutritional and health status of people (Krause and Mahan, 1984). Regardless of the factors influencing dietary patterns, adequate food intake is essential as nutritional well-being plays an imp ortant role in health promotion and maintenance. Diet may influence the risk of developing certain chronic diseases and plays a role in preventing morbidity and mortality.Eating habits are thus the result of both external factors, such as politics, and internal factors, such as values. These habits are formed, and may change, over a person's lifetime. There is little research on the dietary patterns and food habits of soccer players, this notwithstanding, studying intakes gives some amount of information on their diet patterns. Professional footballers develop a habit of reducing the intake of carbohydrates and fats and increasing intake of proteins and vitamins with the knowledge of preventing increases in weight (Manore, 2000). This is not the case as R. J.Maughan (2000) recommended increased intake of carbohydrate in particular looking at the nature of the sports which is energy demanding. He did this after studying the macronutrient intakes of two elite teams in Scotland. Indivi duals have some sort of perceptions that go with the kind of profession they choose and football players are not left out. The fact that one is a professional footballer could alter the dietary pattern and food habit of that person. Also, availability of food (the individual’s environment) influences the range of food choices he or she can make. 2. 3ENERGY AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF ACTIVE INDIVIDUALSMeeting energy needs is the first nutritional priority for athletes and one of the most frequently asked questions is â€Å"How much should I eat to stay fit and healthy? † A healthy diet contains the right proportions of carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins and minerals (Maughan, 2000). Carbohydrates and fats are the major sources of energy although energy can be obtained from protein. Active individuals need more energy (calories) each day than their sedentary counterparts-assuming individuals are of the same age, body size and participate in similar non-physically act ive daily activities (Manore, 2000).Exercise requires energy to fuel and repair the muscles, thus, meeting one’s energy needs to maintain body weight should be a priority for any athlete or active individual (Clark et al, 2003). Energy balance is achieved when the energy consumed (sum of energy from food, supplements and fluids) equals energy expenditure (sum of all the energy expended by the body in movement or to maintain body functions) (Swinburn and Ravussin, 1993). Knowing whether one is in energy balance is simple: weight is maintained.If energy intake does not cover the costs of energy expenditure, then weight and muscle mass are lost, and the ability to perform strenuous exercise typically declines (Black et al, 2000). When energy intake is restricted, fat and muscle mass will be utilized for energy to fuel the body, and the loss of muscle mass will result in the loss of strength and endurance. Additionally, chronically low energy intake usually results in poor nutrie nt intakes, including carbohydrate, protein, vitamins and minerals.Exactly how much energy an active individual needs each day will depend on a number of factors, including age, gender, body size, level and intensity of physical activity and activities of daily living. The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 2002 reviewed the energy needs of active and very active individuals and provided some general recommendations based on age and body size. In general, the first goal of an active individual is to maintain adequate energy intake to ensure that a healthy body weight is maintained.Although this seems like a simple task, there are many active individuals who find this difficult to do. For these individuals, a dietary plan that assures meals and snacks are not skipped will improve energy intake and help maintain weight (Manore, 2000). Finally, energy needs typically decrease with age, so even if activity levels do not change, the amount of energy requ ired to maintain body weight will decrease. For this reason, body weight typically increases with age, even if activity levels remain constant (Black et al, 2000). 2. 4MACRONUTRIENT CONSUMPTIONCarbohydrate, protein and fat are important nutrients for active individuals, but the amounts of these macronutrients needed will depend on an individual’s physical activity, its intensity, duration and frequency, the type of exercise engaged in, and their health, body size, age and gender (Maughan, 2000). Macronutrient recommendations for those engaged in daily physical activity are given below and in Table 2. 1. Table 2. 1 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individuals Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for macronutrients and recommendations for active individualsNutrientNew Guidelines-2002Old Guidelines-1989Guidelines for Active Individuals Carbohydrate45-65% of total energy? 50% of total energyThe amount of carbohydrate required for mode rate intensity exercise is 5-7 g/kg body weight; 7-12 g/kg body weight for high intensity endurance activities Protein10-35% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of bodyweight10-15% of total energy, 0. 8 g/kg of body weightProtein requirements are typically higher in active individuals. Recommendations range from 1. 2-1. 7 g of protein/kg body weight. This level of protein typically represents 15% of total energy.Fat20-35% of total energy? 30% of total energyFat intakes between 20-35%. Carbohydrate and protein needs should be met first. IOM, 2002. FNB, 1989. Burke et al, 2004; Tipton and Wolfe, 2004. 2. 4. 1Carbohydrate needs The mix of fuel (protein, fat, carbohydrate) burned during physical activity depends primarily on the intensity and duration of the activity performed, one’s level of fitness, and prior nutritional status. All other conditions being equal, as exercise intensity increases the use of carbohydrate for energy will also increase (Brooks & Mercier, 1994; Brooks & Trimme r, 1995).The duration of exercise also changes substrates use. As duration of exercise increases (e. g. , from 60 to 120 min), muscle glycogen becomes depleted, causing the body to draw on circulating blood glucose as a source of carbohydrate (Clark et al, 2003). If blood glucose cannot be maintained within physiological range during exercise, the ability to perform intensity exercise will decrease (Coyle et al. , 1986). Fat can be used as a source of energy over a wide range of exercise intensities; however, the proportion of energy contributed by fat decreases as exercise intensity increases.In these circumstances, carbohydrate becomes the dominant fuel source while the contribution from fat decreases (Bergman et al. , 1999). Protein can also be used for energy at rest and during exercise; however, in well-fed individuals it probably provides 4. 0 and TEE of 33 MJ/d in a bicycle race and a polar exploration. The maximum for a sustainable way of life may be that represented by sold iers on active service, with a mean PAL of 2. 4 and TEE of 18 MJ/d (Black et al, 2002). Among athletes in training, mean PALs is 2-3. 5, with TEE ranging from 11 to 18 MJ/d in women, and from 15 to 30 MJ/d in men (UNU, 2004).PALs greater than 2. 4 were obtained in periods of ‘rigorous training', which is unlikely to be a sustained lifestyle. The lower values for PAL, 2. 0-2. 3, were obtained in periods of apparently routine training and may well be sustained for extended periods of time (UNU, 2004). Table 2. 4 Characteristics and energy expenditure (obtained by DLW) in different age and sex groups by UNU, 2004. Age group (y)nAge (y)Height (m)Weight (kg)BMI (kg/m2)   means. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298924. 4(3. 7)1. 66(0. 06)69. 2(22. 3)25. 3(8. 1) 30-397633. 8(3. 0)1. 64(0. 07)67. (13. 9)25. 2(4. 9) 40-644751. 6(8. 3)1. 65(0. 07)70. 0(13. 3)25. 9(4. 6) Males 18-295622. 5(3. 5)1. 77(0. 07)75. 6(18. 4)24. 0(5. 3) 30-393634. 3(3. 3)1. 79(0. 06)86. 1(31. 4)26. 8(8. 8) 40-641550. 6(8. 8)1. 76(0. 06)77. 0(10. 0)24. 9(3. 0) TEE (MJ/d)BMR (MJ/d)AEE (MJ/d)PAL Age group (y)nmeans. d. means. d. means. d. means. d. Females 18-298910. 4(2. 2)6. 2(1. 1)4. 2(1. 7)1. 70(0. 28) 30-397610. 0(1. 7)6. 0(0. 6)4. 1(1. 5)1. 68(0. 25) 40-64479. 8(1. 7)5. 8(0. 7)4. 0(1. 4)1. 69(0. 23) Males 18-295613. 8(3. 0)7. 5(1. 2)6. 3(2. 5)1. 85(0. 33) 30-393614. 3(3. 1)8. 2(1. 8)6. 1(2. 5)1. 77(0. 1) 40-641511. 5(1. 7)7. 0(0. 8)4. 5(1. 3)1. 64(0. 17) The FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (2004) suggested the average daily energy requirement of adults whose occupational work is classified as light, moderate, or heavy, expressed as a multiple of BMR, to be as follows: LightModerateHeavy Men1. 551. 782. 10 Women1. 561. 641. 82 2. 7. 2Methods of determining caloric needs There are many different methods and formulas used to determine caloric maintenance level or energy expenditure by taking into account the factors of age, sex, height, weight, lean body mass, and activity le vel.Any method and formula that takes into account lean body mass (LBM) gives the most accurate determination of energy expenditure, but even without LBM a reasonably close estimate can be attained. 2. 7. 3Equations based on BMR. A much more accurate method for calculating total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) is to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR) using multiple factors, including height, weight, age and sex, then multiply the BMR by an activity factor to determine TDEE (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). BMR is the total number of calories your body requires for normal bodily functions (excluding activity factors).This includes keeping your heart beating, inhaling and exhaling air, digesting food, making new blood cells, maintaining your body temperature and every other metabolic process in your body. In other words, your BMR is all the energy used for the basic processes of life itself. BMR usually accounts for about two-thirds of total daily energy expenditure. BMR may vary dramatically fr om person to person depending on genetic factors. BMR is at its lowest when you are sleeping undisturbed and you are not digesting anything.It is very important to note that the higher your lean body mass is, the higher your BMR will be (Burke et al, 2004). This is very significant if loss of body fat is needed because it means that the more muscle you have, the more calories you will burn. Muscle is metabolically active tissue, and it requires a great deal of energy just to sustain it. It is obvious then that one way to increase BMR is to engage in weight training in order to increase and/or maintain lean body mass. In this manner it could be said that weight training helps you lose body fat, albeit indirectly (Clark et al, 2003). . 7. 4The Harris-Benedict formula (BMR based on total body weight) The Harris Benedict equation is a calorie formula using the factors of height, weight, age, and sex to determine basal metabolic rate (BMR). This makes it more accurate than determining ca lorie needs based on total bodyweight alone. The only variable it does not take into consideration is lean body mass. Therefore, this equation will be very accurate in all but the extremely muscular (will underestimate caloric needs) and the extremely overfat (will overestimate caloric needs). Mathematically; Men: BMR = 66 + (13. X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) – (6. 8 X age in years) Women: BMR = 655 + (9. 6 X wt in kg) + (1. 8 X ht in cm) – (4. 7 X age in years) Total daily energy expenditure is calculated by multiplying BMR by a multiplier (PAL). 2. 7. 5Katch-McArdle formula (BMR based on lean body weight) This formula from Katch & McArdle takes into account lean body mass (weight) and therefore is more accurate than a formula based on total body weight. The Harris Benedict equation has separate formulas for men and women because men generally have a higher LBM and this is factored into the men's formula.Since the Katch-McArdle formula accounts for LBM, this single for mula applies equally to both men and women. Mathematically; BMR (men and women) = 370 + (21. 6 X lean mass in kg) To determine TDEE from BMR, you simply multiply BMR by the activity multiplier: the physical activity level. 2. 8SNAPSHOTS INTO GENERAL SPORTS NUTRITION AND NUTRITION IN FOOTBALL (SOCCER) In every day to day activity in life on earth, maintaining a good health within and without has being the main aim of humans in general. This is not different from that of football players, as keeping fit and playing regularly void of injuries has being the motive.Training and Diet plays a major role in this behaviour and keeping track of the latter (diet patterns and habits) becomes cumbersome with a lot of lapses coming up every now and then. Football was, for a long time, classed as an endurance sport due largely to the fact that a football match lasted at least 90 minutes. As a result, the nutritional requirements of football players were extrapolated from early scientific research carried out in relation to other ‘endurance sports’ such as running and cycling.It is true that the duration of a football match is normally 90 minutes; however, the training loads associated with these sports are vastly different (Maughan, 2000). On closer inspection it becomes clear that daily energy expenditure of professional football players may not be particularly high. Football players are generally inactive when not training and training load will vary, depending on factors such as the stage of the season, or whether tactical or fitness drills predominate in training.If football players were to consume 7-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight each day (a recommendation found in many textbook) then a quick calculation that included reasonable amounts of protein and fat would generate a daily energy intake closer to 4,200kcal (Maughan, 2000). In Scandinavia this may be closer to the truth. Once the playing season gets underway the Scandinavian subjects typically t rain seven times per week (Manore, 2000). So it is not surprising that energy intakes will exceed 4,000kcal in a country like Sweden (Clark et al, 2003).An athlete’s diet must be high in carbohydrate, moderate in protein, low in fat, include sufficient vitamins and minerals, and plenty of fluid. ’ This was the original model with which many football nutritionists and players used to work (Article-peak performance, 2009). Although very simple, much of it still holds today. However, understanding the game has improved; nutritionists have been able to tease out strategies from each of the model’s sub-sections that more closely match the requirements of our sport. What is different is that science no longer holds ll the cards. Football has caught up with science and is now dictating where research efforts are directed. For, example, the glycemic index of foods, a ranking of foods based on their immediate effect on blood glucose, has become a particularly useful tool in football. Five years ago the approach in football was to advocate a high carbohydrate, low fat diet at all times. Any food that at all met these requirements would be recommended to players in a bid to maximise muscle glycogen storage for training and competition.Now a more measured approach is employed with the glycemic index and, to a lesser extent, the insulin index utilised in a bid to control body composition as well as carbohydrate provision (Article-peak performance, 2009). Emphasis is now placed more on achieving optimum carbohydrate intake prior to matches, and during the recovery period after matches, particularly when some clubs find themselves involved in up to three games per week in the busiest part of the season. Good attitudes to reducing fat intake are now a commonplace in the modern player.Emphasis is placed on increasing intake of certain fatty acids that are found to be lacking in players’ diets. When performing dietary analyses of players, low intakes of essential fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA; docosahexenoic acid, DHA) are consistently reported. Despite the appearance of oily fish in the canteens of football clubs, there may be a case for blanket supplementation in this particular group of sportsmen (Maughan, 2000). There is growing evidence that protein supplementation after training can promote protein synthesis and adaptation of muscle.The type, timing and amount of protein can be manipulated to enhance the adaptive response (Coyle et al, 1999). The work of researchers such as Bob Wolfe and Kevin Tipton in Texas, and Mike Rennie in Dundee (whose primary interest has been likened to ‘preventing older people falling down’) has enabled the design of strategies of protein-intake that may promote better adaptation to training. Despite the progress that has been made in our understanding of the demands of football, there is a need for continued improvement. No other sub-discipline of sports medicine comes wi th so many contrasting views of what is right and wrong.The ‘Zone’ diet, the ‘Atkins’ diet, mass supplementation, the concept of the ‘nutritional guru’ – all are still prevalent in the modern game. Players are becoming more demanding due to conversations with other players from other teams, and also other athletes from other sports. Players from overseas bring with them their own ideas (nearly always related to vitamin intake), but very often lacking in scientific support (Article-peak performance, 2009). In addition, at present there is a fundamental mismatch in what players and practitioners view as important.Players believe in supplements, extra vitamins and minerals: anything that involves increasing muscle mass, and reducing energy intake to achieve ‘lean’ body composition. Scientific research, on the other hand, demonstrates that players should concentrate more on appropriate energy intake, and high carbohydrate and fl uid intake. Sports nutrition is important in football because food provides us with energy for our muscles, brain and other organs. Football requires plenty of exercise, and therefore it is important to have energy available during the game. The energy available at any particular time depends on blood sugar levels.If we over-eat, we become over-weight. The heavier we are, the more work our muscles have to do to take us the same distance. This reduces stamina, and the ability to accelerate quickly. If we under-eat, we can become weak and our overall health can decline, because we are not getting enough nutrients. A healthy diet improves general level of health, and can help recovery more quickly from injuries (Clark et al, 2003). Along with a program of fitness training, diet can help develop stamina and improve athletic performance (Maughan, 2000). Diet is essential for our growth, and development.The timing of the meals consumed is important. Healthy male individuals present an ave rage energy demand of 2900kcal ·day-1 (National Research Council, 1996); however, a professional soccer player's energy demand oscillates from 3500 to 4300 kcal/day (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al. , 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002; Rico-Sanz, 1998a). It should be acknowledged that these values for soccer players vary from week to week, and energy expenditure depends on the frequency and intensity of training sessions, exercises and matches. In soccer, players require a diet with a high percentage of carbohydrates (Rico-Sanz et al. 1998).On the day of a match the intake of fat and protein should be restricted, as these nutrients require a relatively long time to be digested. Pre-competition meal must be 3-4 hours before the match (Bangsbo et al. , 2006). The pre-competition meal should be: high in carbohydrate (this is the fuel that your body needs to perform at the highest level), low in fat, low in protein, low in fiber, not too bulky, and easy to digest. A snack high in carbohydrate may be eaten about 2 hours before the match; however the time reference is only a guideline as there are great individual differences in the ability to digest food.Once the game is over, fluids should be replaced and carbohydrate should be consumed as soon as possible to promote recovery of glycogen stores. As soon as possible aim to consume a meal which is high in carbohydrates. Foods such as pasta, spaghetti, rice, noodles, low fat pasta sauce, bread, potatoes, and baked beans should be consumed during this period (Manore, 2000). Carbohydrate rich foods must be the main source of your diet. Consume the main bulk of the diet from complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates should not be consumed in large quantities and are more useful as snacks between workouts, or to top up your energy intake.The carbohydrate consumed should be balanced with a healthy intake of protein, low fat and plenty of fruit and vegetables. The water lost from the body during sweating needs to be replaced to sto p the process of getting tired quickly, and also speed up the recovery process – that means feeling fitter and sharper afterwards a lot sooner. For footballers, the best fluid to drink is a diluted carbohydrate/electrolyte solution; ideally, it’s best to drink before, during and after a training session, as well as drinking frequently during a match (peak performance, 2009).After all matches, players should attempt to ingest enough carbohydrate-containing sports drink to replace all the fluid they've lost during competition. After strenuous workouts, water should also be replaced, and football athletes need to eat at least 500 calories of carbohydrate during the two hours following practice in order to maximize their rates of glycogen storage. CHAPTER THREE (3) 3. 0METHODOLOGY The research aims at assessing the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers, in Real Tamale United Football Club in the Tamale metropolis, and its effect o n nutritional status.The research will answer specific questions about the factors that influence dietary pattern and food habits of footballers, foods/macronutrients commonly consumed by professional footballers; the nutritional status of footballers in the club, the physical activity level of footballers, the average energy expenditure of the footballers and then whether professional footballers meet their energy requirement. 3. 1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA 3. 1. 1Location and Size Tamale metropolis is one of the eighteen districts of the northern region of Ghana. Tamale, the administrative capital of the region is located at the center of the region.The metropolis shares common boundaries with Savelugu/Nanton district on the north, and Tolon/Kumbungu district on the northwest. Also, it is bordered west and central Gonja districts on the south; and east Gonja and Yendi districts on the east. The metropolis occupies a landmass with approximately 922 square kilometers, which is abo ut 13 percent of the total land area of the region (Regional Coordinating Council, RCC, 2010). 3. 1. 2Vegetation and Climate The vegetation of the metropolis is that of a typical guinea savanna zone with tall trees such as neem, shea and kapok, interspersed with grasses.During the rainy season, the vegetation becomes luxuriant, providing green scenery. The dry season is however, characterized by dry grasses with the trees shedding off their leaves as well as an exposed environment to bushfires. As a result of its location in the savanna belt, the metropolis experiences only one rainy season which begins in April/May, attains its peak in July/August and ends in September/October, and a long dry season from November to March. The mean annual rainfall and dry sunshine stands at 1100mm and 7. 5hours respectively.On the average, the metropolis experiences only 95days of intense rainfall. Also, the average maximum and minimum ranges are relatively 33 °C -39 °C and 20 °C -22 °C (Gh ana Meteorological Services, 2010). 3. 1. 3Demographic Characteristics Tamale metropolis has a population of about 350,000 inhabitants which constitutes about 20% of the total population of the region (Ghana Statistical Services, 2008). The metropolis is heterogeneous and encompasses diverse ethnic groups that are the Dagombas, Gonjas, Mamprusi and Akans among others with the dagombas constituting about 80% of the population.Moslems are the predominant religious group followed by Christians. The most important festivals of the people of the metropolis are damba and yam festivals. However, other festivals including Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul Adha, which are Islamic festivals, are celebrated in the area. 3. 1. 4Socio-Economic Characteristics Farming is the major occupation of the people of Tamale. They cultivate rice, maize, guinea corn, cowpea, groundnuts, soybeans, yam and cassava. They also rear animals including sheep, goats, guinea fowls and cattle.However, the crops and animals are mostly produced by peri-urban and rural dwellers. Other economic ventures include groundnut oil extraction and trading by women mostly on small scale. Men are often seen to engage in smock weaving, tailoring, automobile repairs, carpentry and butchery. The increasing levels of educational attainments have contributed to the number of civil servants including teachers, nurses and security personnel among others in the area. 3. 1. 5Foods Consumed A variety of foods are consumed by the people of Tamale and its environs.At home, tuo-zaafi (TZ), a staple food of the Dagombas, which is prepared from maize, is consumed by most people. In general, TZ is consumed with a vegetable-based soup especially dry Okro. In the urban and peri-urban communities, TZ is usually the meal taken at supper, whilst a maize-based porridge or tea is taken as breakfast. In the metropolis, lunch is hardly prepared at home, hence the people choose from a variety of street foods available. Thus, the people in the u rban Tamale consume a lot of street foods including fried yam, rice and beans among others. . 2THE STUDY AREA 3. 2. 1HISTORY OF RTU Real Tamale United, often called as R. T. U. , is a Ghanaian football club based in Tamale in the Northern Region of Ghana. They are a member of the Ghanaian Globacom premier league. Their home stadium is the Tamale Sports Stadium. The club was founded in 1976 by the first chairman Alhaji Adam. The club has 36 players currently, of which 25 were used in this study. With the operational definition of a professional football team and player, RTU was the only team that met the criteria for selection in the Tamale metropolis.The club has only won the Ghana Telecom Gala once in 1997/98 season with three appearances in CAF competitions in 1992, 1996 and 1998 of which they were eliminated in the first round. Recently, the club battled for survival in the Ghanaian Globacom Premiership for two years running. 3. 3THE STUDY POPULATION AND SAMPLE SELECTION The popu lation for this study will be male professional footballers in the club. The operational definition of a professional footballer in the context of this study will be an individual who plays elite or first division club football.Football players in the Real Tamale United Football Club, in the Tamale metropolis of the Northern Region, were sampled purposively and used as the representative sample for this study on the basis that the club is based in Ghana, a country well known for its interest in football development; the club participates in the country’s first division known as the premiership which means all players in the club play at the top level of football in the country and finally located in the Northern Region of the country: an area where poverty and illiteracy rates are high which has influences in areas of sports nutrition and performance. . 3. 1SELECTION CRITERIA Thirty five members of the Real Tamale United football squad aged 17-30years were recruited for the s tudy. Only 25 subjects met the requirements of being void of illness and injury carried out during a two day fitness test in the presence of the team physiotherapist. All measurements and data were done at a time when the premier league was ongoing with players playing week in week out matches. 3. 4BODY MASS INDEX: its Calculation Body mass index is based on a weight-to-height ratio that indicates the energy reserves of an individual.BMI is a ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of the height in meters. Heights and weights are therefore the indicators for calculating the BMI of an individual. BMI is the current method for calculating a healthy body weight and is based on the study of a wide variety of people from many countries. The FAO/WHO/UNU (2004) established reference values for comparing the BMI of active individuals. Mathematically; BMI = WEIGHT (Kg) / height (M? ). The unit of BMI is thus, kgm. 3. 5BASAL METABOLIC RATES: its CalculationIt is the minimum amount of energ y needed to keep the body alive and is the largest component of an average person's daily energy expenditure. The BMR is usually expressed simply as kilocalories per day or in units of energy per unit surface area (or per kilogram body mass) per unit time. It is very difficult to determine the absolute minimum metabolic rate, but estimates are usually standardized by being made when a person is resting quietly after at least 8 hours sleep and 12 hours since the last meal.In this study, BMR of subjects was estimated using the Harris-Benedict equation which takes into consideration parameters such as age, height and weight of the individual. Mathematically; BMR (MEN) = 66 + (13. 7 X wt in kg) + (5 X ht in cm) – (6. 8 X age in years). The unit of BMR is therefore kcal/day. 3. 6DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE Physical activity levels of individuals are estimated from daily activities undertaken, taking into consideration its intensity and duration .According to Ainsworth et al (2004), these daily activities are represented as values known as physical activity ratios (PAR values). Considering the intensity and duration of the activity taken with respect to the PAR values, an estimate of the physical activity level (PAL) is determined (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The PAL values are categorized as light, moderate and heavy activity (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004) and when multiplied by the BMR of the individual, an estimation of energy expenditure is determined. Mathematically; PAL = ? (PAR ? DURATION OF ACTIVITY) ? (TIME SPENT IN EACH ACTIVITY) ENERGY EXPENDITURE = PAL ?BMR The unit of energy expenditure is thus, kcal/day or KJ. 3. 7DATA COLLECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION 3. 7. 1Questionnaire The major instrument for collecting the data was semi-structured questionnaire administered to soccer players through self-reporting. The questionnaire was designed to collect quantitative data, but some qualitative data was also gathered as well. The questionnai re was in three forms, namely, the general nutrition knowledge questionnaire which also had sections for anthropometric records, the food dairy and the physical activity dairy (Appendix I, II and III). 3. 7. 2AnthropometryAnthropometry was one of the techniques employed in the data collection and was based on the measurement of only the height and weight of the respondents. The anthropometry was made an integral part of the questionnaire and efforts were made to ensure that these parameters were measured to make the questionnaire completely filled. The procedures employed in carrying out the measurements are elaborated in the sections below. These procedures are based on the FAO/WHO/UNU technical report standards for the measurement of weight and height of physically active individuals. Weight measurementThe subjects were weighed using an electronic bathroom scale with an accuracy of 0. 1kg, before morning training. The subjects wore light clothes as much as possible and on bare foo t before weighing took place. Each subject to be weighed was made to stand upright and in a relaxed manner on the scale with the eyes looking horizontally to the feet and the hand by the sides. The weight was then read and immediately recorded. Height Measurement Heights of the respondents were measured using a wall-mounted stadiometer. Prior to the measurement, it was ensured that the subjects wore neither ootwear, boots nor socks. Each subject to be measured was made to stand upright and erect against the wall, with the heels, buttocks and the upper back touching the wall, the feet close together and the eyes looking straight. A ruler was then placed on the crown of the head towards the stadio measurements and the reading immediately recorded to the nearest 1. 0cm. 3. 7. 3Food intake Subjects were educated and given verbal and written instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in recording food intake in a food intake dairy on a free non-training day.A food intake dairy (Appendix II) was given to each of the participants to be filled according to their daily dietary intake taking into consideration meals, portion sizes, food type and quantity for seven consecutive days ((Bingham, 2000; Tilgner and Schiller, 1991). Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure correct recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. All dairies were collected after seven days. Samples of estimated portion sizes of foods were acquired and weighed using a kitchen weighing scale and recorded to the nearest 0. g. The nutrient composition of the meals was calculated using the FAO food composition table for Africa and reported as a mean of 4 days’ food intake. This data was used to assess nutrient consumption. To assess adequacy in nutrient intake, the results obtained were compared with the FAO/WHO/UNU RDA for physically active adults (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). 3. 7. 4Physical Activity Pattern Subjects were educated and given verba l and written instructions (Appendix IV) on the procedures involved in recording, as detailed as possible, information on their daily activity patterns.A physical activity or training dairy (Appendix III) was given to each subject to be filled under sections of activity type and its duration in minutes for seven consecutive days. Dairies were checked in every two days to ensure correct recording and correction in any case of wrong recording or difficulty in recording. Training sessions were constantly monitored and subjects where individually questioned in cases were irregularities in recording were encountered. Their activities were classified broadly into three categories: light, moderate and heavy. A 7-days’ activity record was compiled for each subject on imilar days when food intake was measured. The activity data were reported as a mean of 4 days’ activity records. This data was used to compute energy expenditure and nutrient requirement for each subject. 3. 7. 5 Observation Several observations were made at the training fields, at camp bases and in homes of the subjects. These dwelled in the kinds of foods consumed and activities undertaken, the places of meal consumption and purchasing. Also, the components of training regimes were observed and recorded. 3. 7. 6Focus-Group Discussion Focus-group discussions were held with subjects on free and camping days.Each discussion group was made up of between eight and twelve individuals with a facilitator and a recorder. The FDGs were meant to reveal certain issues that were not captured by the questionnaire and to confirm the answers provided in the semi-structured questionnaire including the factors that influence certain behaviours of subjects with respect to dietary habits and physical activity. 3. 8THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTS The study seeks to assess the dietary patterns, food habits and energy expenditure of professional footballers of Real Tamale United FC in the Tamale metropolis.Th is is achieved through the assessment of usual food intake and physical activity and the computation of BMI and BMR and the determination of daily energy expenditure. These have being reported as relevant measurement of an athlete’s nutritional status. The first and second objectives of which respectively seek to assess the dietary patterns and food habits and macronutrient consumption are achieved through reported nutrition questionnaires and recorded food consumption for seven consecutive days using the food dairy.The third objective, which seeks to assess the nutritional status of professional soccer players using BMI, was achieved through the measurement of height and weight of the footballers. The fourth and fifth objective, which seeks to determine the physical activity level and average energy expenditure of footballers was achieved through self-reported physical activity dairy for seven consecutive days computed using physical activity ratio with time duration (to att ain physical activity levels) and physical activity levels in multiples of their BMRs (to attain energy expenditure).The sixth and final objective, which seeks to determine whether professional footballers meet their energy requirements was achieved through a self-reported food record dairy for seven consecutive days with nutrient contents of foods consumed computed using the FAO food composition table for Africa. 3. 9STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Data were analyzed using the EpiInfo version 3. 2. 1 and Microsoft Excel computer programme. Results are presented as mean  ±SD, range, graphs, figures and tables. Anthropometric data from players was transformed into BMI to assess their nutritional status and BMR to assess physical activity levels.Dietary and physical activity data from players was transformed into nutrient requirements, physical activity levels and energy expenditure respectively to assess the level of malnutrition. 3. 10ASSUMPTIONS The most obvious assumption is that the sampl e represents the population. Also, it is believed that all instruments have validity and measure the required value. We assume that participants will not modify their habitual diet patterns and food habits during the course of the study week. Finally, we assume that respondents will answer sincerely all questionnaires and report truthfully in both the food and activity dairies. CHAPTER FOUR (4) . 0RESULTS The physical characteristics of the twenty five (25) subjects are shown in Table 4. 1. Out of the 25 subjects studied, only one weighed less than 60kg while the range indicated (57 and 87kg) were the two extreme body weights recorded in this study. Their body mass index (kg/m? ) ranged from 19. 38 to 30. 3 kg/m? ; out of the 25 subjects studied, only two were over the 190cm (1. 9m) while the range indicated (1. 52 and 1. 95m) were the extreme heights recorded in the study. Table 4. 1 Physical characteristics of subjects ParametersMeans (25)SDRange Age (yrs. )23. 684. 2417-30 Weight (kg)70. 647. 657-87 Height (m)1. 69. 41. 52-1. 95 BMI (kg/m? )23. 082. 719. 38-30. 3 4. 1Dietary Patterns and Habits 4. 1. 1Favourite Food Choices of Subjects The general meal patterns were obtained through self-reported food dairies. Porridges and beverages took the highest frequency of consumption in terms of its 7day presence in diets and its frequency among subjects. Records for breakfast shows that baby porridge made from corn, millet or rice, beans and groundnuts (tom brown) is mostly consumed by all subjects (100%). Fufu was the least consumed diet within the 7day period (2days) with Tuo Zaafi recording the least number of subject patronages (7subjects).The results of the common foods taken, their frequencies in the diet and meal times are shown in table 4. 2. TABLE 4. 2 Common foods eaten by players SOURCES OF MACRONUTRIENTS (FOODS)FREQUENCY IN DIET (7DAYS) FREQUENCY OF SUBJECTSEATING MOMENTS Plain rice/jollof rice5days20Lunch and dinner Kenkey (Ga and Fante)3days15Lunch Tu o Zaafi4days7Dinner Banku5days18Lunch and dinner Fried rice and chicken 4days22Lunch and dinner Soups (groundnut, palm nut, light, Okro)3days20Lunch and dinner Porridges (baby, hausa, tom brown)7days25Breakfast Meat and Beef7days21Lunch and dinner Fufu2days11Lunch and dinnerYam (boiled and fried)4days14Lunch and dinner Rice and beans (waakye)5days16Lunch Egg (fried and boiled)3days20Breakfast and lunch beverages (tea, oats, fruit drinks)7days22Breakfast and as a snack fish (fried)3days17Lunch and dinner 4. 1. 2Eating moments An assessment of the usual food pattern revealed that 90. 7% of the players took at least three meals a day. Most meal times skipped were breakfast and lunch, that is, 57. 14% and 28. 57% respectively. Table 4. 3 The eating moments of players in terms of meals skipped Meal TimeFrequencyPercentage BREAKFAST457. 14 LUNCH228. 57 SUPPER114 TOTAL7100 4. 1. Reasons for players food choices The reasons for the choice of foods by the subjects among others included conve nience, lack of money, inability to cook, general sports reasons and food availability. The results indicated (as shown in figure 1) that, 10 of the players made food choices based on sports reasons. Figure 1The reasons for food choices of players 4. 1. 4General Food Habits of Players (Sports Nutrition) From the results obtained from the questionnaire on general sports nutrition, 60% of the players consume fried rice and chicken before a competitive match with 40% consuming plain rice and stew.Players gave various reasons such as its easy and fast digestion, it not been too heavy, it been recommended by coaches and it been the only available food given at the camp base. 68% of players consumed these foods 3-4hrs before a match with 24% and 8% consuming theirs at 4 or more hours and 2-3hrs respectively. Most of the players gave similar reasons for eating at these times as giving the food ample time to digest. 92% of the players take fluids such as bottled water, glucose solution and energy drinks during a match. 88% of the players take 1-3 of 300ml fluid whiles 12% take 4-7 of 300ml of fluid.Snacks consumed before and during a match included energy drinks, glucose mixtures, soft drinks, savouries among others. Most snacks were taken 2hours before a match. 56% of the players take nutrition supplements such as multivitamin capsules, iron and zinc capsules and blood tonics. Reasons such as increasing energy levels, boosting appetite and to aid in the body’s fast recovery were given. 64. 29% of the players take these supplements all the time and they get these supplements from the pharmacy shops. 96% of the players buy wayside foods such as fried rice, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. 2% of the players eat once a while at the restaurant with 44% and 4% eating at times and all the time at the restaurant respectively. 80% of players eat home prepared meals. 4. 2NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF PLAYERS BMI CATEGORIES (kg/m? )FREQUENCYPERCENTAGES (%)INTERPRETATION 0. 05), sugg esting average energy balance was achieved. The mean intakes of the energy producing macronutrients were 37. 18%, 43. 23% and 19. 6% for carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively. When reported as a percentage of total calories, carbohydrate and protein intakes were significantly lower and higher (p > 0. 05) respectively of the recommended levels.Fat intake was significantly higher (p > 0. 05) than the higher value in the recommended range (35%). When macronutrient intake is expressed in g/kg/day (Table 4. 6), carbohydrate and protein intakes fell below and above their recommended ranges. The table below shows the mean energy and macronutrient intake of players. MealsMean of IntakesPercentagesSDRange Total energy intakes (KJ/day) Breakfast763. 2927. 42178. 09256-1019. 4 Lunch1015. 2136. 47227. 22680. 9-1723. 3 Dinner1004. 9836. 12286. 07528-1637 Total2783. 48100451. 551985. 6-4105. 5 Total energy intake in proteins (KJ/day) Breakfast349. 7564. 1294. 97106. 3-437. 2Lunch89. 8816. 48 37. 9930. 8-183. 0 Dinner105. 8519. 461. 5134. 9-253. 4 Total (%TEI)545. 49100 (19. 6)130. 81297-783. 9 Total energy intake in carbohydrates (KJ/day) Breakfast282. 427. 2974. 46116. 7-438. 7 Lunch360. 3234. 8283. 9265. 5-642. 3 Dinner392. 0937. 89129. 15172. 1-790 Total (%TEI)1034. 79100(37. 18)168. 79768. 1-1507. 3 Total energy intake in fats (KJ/day) Breakfast111. 189. 2459. 9433. 2-280. 5 Lunch595. 7349. 5309. 55296-1793. 7 Dinner496. 2941. 25150. 02206. 1-838. 4 Total (%TEI)1203. 20100 (43. 23)373. 25756. 8-2587. 5 TABLE 4. 6The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in terms of meal times.Energy intake from the table above indicates slightly higher levels of consumption at lunch times over dinner times at 1015. 21kcal/day (36. 47%) and 1004. 98kcal/day (36. 12%) respectively. Energy intakes range from 1985. 6-4105. 5kcal/day. Macronutrient intakes were slightly distributed across all meal times. Table 4. 7The mean daily energy and macronutrient intake of players in comparison with FAO/WHO/UNU 2004 reference values. IntakesMeans (kcal/dayPercentageskcal/kg/dayg/kg/dayReference: g/kg/day (%range) Energy (TDEI)2783. 43-39. 4-3500-4300 kcal/day Carbohydrate1034. 7937. 1814. 653. 7-12 (45-65) Protein545. 4919. 67. 721. 91. 2-1. 7 (10-35) Fat1203. 243. 2317. 031. 9- (20-35) TDEE3932. 55-55. 67– TDEI2783. 45-39. 4– TDEE-TDEI1149. 1-16. 27– 4. 4. 2Difference in energy intake and expenditure According to data gotten from both the food and physical activity dairy, the mean energy deficit is 1134kcal/day (16. 1kcal/kg/day). Energy intake was slightly higher than expenditure at point 7, 11 and 20 representing 141. 76kcal/day, 1045. 7kcal/day and 447kcal/day in extra energy respectively. Figure 3 shows the graphical illustration of energy intake as against expenditure.Figure 3Energy intake and expenditure of players CHAPTER FIVE (5) 5. 0DISCUSSION 5. 1DIETARY PATTERNS AND FOOD HABITS The dietary changes observed among these players are consistent with the findings of Rodriguez (2009) on changes in dietary habits as to a high protein intake of players in particular. R. Maughan (2000) suggested that football players tend to consume high intakes of protein with the belief of increasing muscle mass. This was not different with the current study as players consumed high levels of protein based foods due to its easy access and availability within the study area.The players also had habits of consuming foods high in fat leading to its contribution of 43. 23% to total energy intake, as these levels of fat proportion may be detrimental to health (Martin et al, 2006). Cost, availability and convenience were challenges and these made them adapt to the habit of patronizing wayside foods (96%). It is, therefore, not surprising that majority ate fried rice and chicken, tuo zaafi and fufu and soup. Although breakfast is an important meal of the day, quite a significant number of players in this study skipped it.Skipping brea kfast may also lead to over eating during the rest of the day. Most of the foods consumed were from staples but these resulted in very low carbohydrate intakes (1034. 79  ± 168. 8 kcal/day). These may be as a result of the poor nutrient content of the foods as a result of poor cooking habits as foods eaten are prepared by food vendors (C. Nti, 2009). Meals consumed before a match was plain rice and tomato stew which may have negative effect on performance, with respect to the tomato stew which is high in fat, and this may hinder the fast release of energy to the body for endurance activities.The over reliance on wayside food and players left to fend for themselves with no amount of supervision may be detrimental to health and nutritional status. Most of these way side foods have very high levels of fat and this may account for the high amount of fat in diets. The eating behaviour of the players might have been influenced by other factors including food availability, convenience an d personal income level, as these obviously determine an individual’s food choice and habit. Thus one cannot eat foods if they are not available, cannot be prepared or cannot be afforded. . 2MACRONUTRIENTS Carbohydrate is the primary fuel substrate during soccer, and consequently high dietary intakes of 45-65% of total calorific intake have been recommended for athletes (Clark, 1994; Bangsbo et al, 2006; Ebine et al. , 2002) and footballers (Burke et al, 2004; IOM, 2002). In this study, carbohydrate intake was significantly lower than these recommendations (37. 18  ± 6. 1%, p < 0. 05). When expressed relative to body mass (weight), the daily carbohydrate intake of 3. g/kg/day was way below the recommended 7-12g/kg/day for very active individuals (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2004). The current data provide further evidence to the commonly observed low carbohydrate intakes that are insufficient for adequate glycogen replacement in male athletes (R. Maughan, 2000). Dietary recommendations fo r promoting maximal glycogen replacement and for the maintenance of muscle glycogen levels are to consume a high carbohydrate diet, 45-60% (IOM, 2002) and a daily intake of 7-12g/kg/day (Bangsbo et al, 2006).Based upon these recommendations, players in the current study reported carbohydrate intakes that are likely to be inadequate to replace muscle and liver glycogen stores which rapidly deplete during repeated bouts of high intensity exercise performed during training and competition (Bangsbo et al, 2006). Ultimately, both the quality of training and match perform

Sales Management Assignment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sales Management Assignment - Term Paper Example To begin, one can easily interact with customers through the free social sites and have them together so as to deliver relevant information to them. It is also possible to update the network as regular as possible. Sharing of customer experience and information may be enabled through the internet. There is an opening for business evaluation depending on the customers view. As this is done, there is a feeling of personal attachment that develops mutually. For instance a company like sumsung can effectively makes its marketing over the internet by advertising its products and issuing direct purchases from all over the world. Through the internet, it is possible to attract more customers with no limitation as long as the customer has connections with you. In fact, in case of social sites, all other friends and families will be able to see the information about the business. This enables more room for sharing leading to the growth of the network. Businesses can exploit this technology fo r promotion of their services and products1. Modification of features is possible through the internet hence relating as per current situation is possible. This can be father enhanced by customizing links and collaborating features within the website. Interaction with the customer is made more dependable with the provision of contacts and sharing of information via the inbox; this ensures a feeling of security with the individual customers. Through the social sites, there can be recorded an increase in the leads and sales. Enticing information may be included such as the offers available, new brands, among other information that may be required by the intended customers2. As such, the efficiency of this method as an advertising tool is fully realised among the users. There is the need to build trust so as to realise the advantages of using the internet t reach the customers. Disadvantages of building customer relation using the internet Security is the first issue with the internet technology in the world today. This is mostly due to hacking that has made most customers to doubt the payment procedures hence less commitments in line with the payments. Some companies which offer money transfers may be the victim in this case making the process harder. For instance, the use of visa cards has recorded froud in its transsuctions occasionally. The scale of the system is a limiting factor to some level. In case the system is made to accommodate a given number of customers then it so happens that the customers increase beyond the expected number then the business is set to shut down since there will be an overflow3. The cost of e-commerce must be calculated; the business must be in a good position to raise sufficient funds in order to accommodate the expenses incurred in using the internet. The product or service in question should also be evaluated so as to determine the loyalty of the customers. As such, the challenge comes where the customers targeted may want to h ave the real feel of the product rather than just the pictorial view of it. Vulnerability of business information to competitors becomes a major disadvantage in customer relation over the internet4. The cost of internet start up is also significantly high. In general, the intimacy of a one to one

Accounting and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Accounting and Society - Essay Example In contrast, conventional approaches to regulating the environment characteristically force entities to implement the same pollution control strategies, irrespective of the relative costs to the entities. This can be expensive and equally counterproductive since, although, the approach succeeds in limiting emissions, the attainment of the results is in an unjustifiably pricey way (Oates, Paul and Albert 1989, p.1233). Non-market-based approaches offer minimal or no incentive whatsoever to do better than what the law demands, or no room to develop and experiment with new technology and equipment that might yield enhanced improvement in pollution control (Hahn and Stavins 1991, p.2). The net result in this case is a drag on productivity and criticisms regarding regulatory inefficiency, all of which undermine commitment to attainment of environmental gains. This observation shapes the call for regulation based on free-market and pro-regulatory approach as it delivers more gains to the society as a whole. Economists criticize non-market-based approaches approach to regulation by citing its costliness and rigidity (Driesen 2003, p.137). From late 1980s, market based instruments for environmental regulation gained prominence such as emissions trading programs. Australia Government’s response has been no different as espoused by its creation of pricing mechanism for carbon and fresh regulatory rep orting requirements centring on greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and production. The Australian government announced plans to replace the $15 per tonne carbon price floor with the introduction of the new carbon price in July 2012, in which the biggest polluters pay $23 per tonne for the carbon emitted (CO2-e). Australia plans to link its carbon pricing system with the European Union Emissions Trading Systems (EU) from July 2015. The National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Scheme (NGERS) that commenced on July 2008 seeks to herald a solitary national reporting framework for constitutional corporations that bear significant greenhouse gas emissions right from energy consumption to energy production. Non Market-based Approaches: Traditional Command-and-Control A prescriptive regulation infers a policy that stipulates how much pollution an entity can emit, and/or what forms of control equipment it must utilize to satisfy those requirements. Such a standard is defined in te rms of a source-level emissions rate. The main idea behind command-and-control rests in the fact that regulated entities are awarded minimal discretion in their pollution control efforts. Command-and-control approach covers a broad range of regulations manifesting varying degrees of flexibility and cost savings (Stewart 1992, p.547). In such circumstances, aggregate emissions will hinge on the number of polluters plus the output of each polluter. The prescriptive standard does not allow for reallocation of abatement activities as each entity may be still expected to attain a certain emissions standard (Stewart 1992, p.548). Hence, whereas pollution may be minimized to the desired level, it is often attained at a higher cost under a prescriptive approach. Performance-based standards A technology standard infers one that stipulates certain actions with minimal or no flexibility to adopt other actions that might yield the same environmental outcome. The focus on process or technology i nstead of the environmental outcome is what predominantly characterizes a technology standard. Conversely, performance standards highlight pollution or environmental quality and hence enable regulated sources some scale of

The Impact of global recession on microfinance in Asia.(approximate Assignment

The Impact of global recession on microfinance in Asia.(approximate topic) - Assignment Example Thus, micro finance narrowly deals with the provision of small loans to low income individuals to help them start small business ventures. Microfinance does not involve large loans as poor people seldom need large loans or want to start big business ventures. Microfinance advocates believe that providing access to finance can help poor people in getting the resources to help themselves out of poverty. Poor people are usually avid savers but they save in kind rather than in cash. Jewelry, gold, animals and building materials are examples of things that they save which might not always be turned into cash easily. If they require finance, they borrow from relatives or landlords and other informal mechanisms which are often exploitative. (Micro finance, 2008) The modern microfinance mechanism is accredited to Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh, the founder of Grameen Bank. He experimented with lending to poor women in rural areas and achieved great success due to high repayment rate and in terest rates. Although, bankers were unwilling to assume the risks and costs associated with micro lending, micro finance institutions succeeded in focusing on women and charging high interest rates that the poor were willing to pay. Although micro credit institutions have existed since the 1700’s, it wasn’t till Grameen Bank in 1983 that the approach to micro finance changed. Currently, it is considered a vital element in the eradication of poverty as it enables the poor to lift themselves out of their situation. (The history of Microfinance, 2006) The report covers the role and limitations of microfinance as well as the effect that the recession has had on this sector. It further takes Kazakhastan’s microfinance sector into account and the implications the downturn has had on it. The importance of microfinance: According to a study by Robinson (2002); 90% of the citizens in developing countries lack access to financial services from established institutions wh ether it is for credit or savings (Vincent, 2004). The impact of the financial sector on the economy and growth of the country is great and this unavailability of finance leads to the vicious poverty cycle of low investment, low productivity and thus low growth. Microfinance is a tool to empower the power, to provide them resources to invest in venture that will increase productivity and lead to economic growth. Although there are conflicting views to microfinance’s real contribution to economic growth and poverty alleviation it is a vital socio-economic tool. The importance of microfinance is that it focuses on the grass roots rather than on dev elopement from top. It focuses on the basics likes a woman getting a loan to set up a PCO and not on setting up industries; thus microfinance is within the grasp of the poor and does not require grand visions but rather baby steps. The investment of credit in an enterprise that leads to the generation of income increases economic gro wth and development. It not only leads to higher productivity but rather a higher standard of life. It expands income sources and increase aggregate demand thus has a multiplied positive effect on the economy and the lives of the poor. It is important to realize the importance of microfinance in providing income that is sustainable, the ventures that microfinance should focus on should be economically and environmentally sustainable to be successful so they help

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 47

Assignment Example While Gorbachev initiated a series of reforms that theoretically moved it away from Marxism to neo capitalism without compromising the basic principles and ideology of Politburo, he was not able to implement them across the federation of socialist states (Brown, 1996). The inability of Gorbachev to implement the reforms and restructure the system resulted in dissatisfaction and unrest, ultimately leading to the disintegration of Soviet Union. Another important factor was that the unification of Germany in 1990 signaled the onset of new sovereign rights and reorientation and development of new equations among the states conforming to leftists’ ideologies and political leanings. This was a major element that provided the popular leaders like Yeltsin with alternatives to woo the public who were disillusioned with the Gorbachev’s hardliner’s policies. There was also huge political unrest across the federation states because they had no representation in the Soviet Union Politburo with the ouster of Shcherbitsky, a Ukrainian in 1989. Hence, these can be considered important factors that contributed to the breakup of the Soviet

Promtional Activities of Hobbs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Promtional Activities of Hobbs - Essay Example ance of one to one marketing, more personal promotions, word of mouth and the emerging technologies like the internet and mobile based marketing that are less expensive to launch and more efficient when it comes to delivering results. The majority of the Hobbs customers are located in London as however the company has significant customers in Ireland and the rest of the UK as well. The marketing plan depicted below however is targeted towards the current and the prospective customers of the company in Birmingham. The Mosaic for Birmingham depicted that fashion consumers in the region are very versatile with people taking cues for their seasonal fashion trends from those generated by the Milan, Paris and the New York fashion weeks. The customers are highly influenced by the fashion trends generated from these fashion capitals of the world and seek to go to retailers that can provide such fashion to them in an accessible and more affordable manner. These target markets are dominated by the South Asian Families, settled Majorities, Upper Floor families and urban youth and professionals. The analysis of the various types of customers that tend to shop at Hobbs depicted that the customers consider store ambiance, its environment, theme and layout. The Hobbs retail company has realized this and an effort has been made by the management to change the look and the feel of the store by employing a walnut and white interior in their stores to make them more fashionable and trendy. â€Å"When retail organizations make a major shift from an old-fashioned merchandise management orientation to a strategic marketing orientation, the development of a functional marketing plan for the implementation of strategic plan gains in importance† (Samli, 1998, p2) Other retailers in their business have also taken to store management and the management of store ambiance to further foot traffic in their stores and increase profits through sales revenue. â€Å"Starbucks, Pottery Barn, Eddie

The Black Cat by Edgar Allen Poe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Black Cat by Edgar Allen Poe - Essay Example The Black Cat tells the story of the desires that consume human, about the bad effects of alcohol and how it consumes the individual and the person loses sense of what’s right and what’s wrong and if it’s not alcohol, then it’s anger, anything that does not allow a person to have self-control and to forget about being human, this story gives a narration of how a human becomes an animal. Like an animal the protagonist has no concern about other beings, his comfort is much more important to him than anybody else. It is further emphasized through him how one bad deed leads to another and how the person loses his conscience during the journey. This paper attempts to bring forward the main theme of the story and then come to a conclusion about the story. The protagonist noted for his â€Å"docility† and â€Å"humanity† turns into a murderer, how a person so humble can become a killer. Was it because of alcohol that he lost his control? Or was it t he curse of the black cat that her wife told him about? Or was it his free will? The story does not provide a direct answer instead all seem to have an effect. Since it is basically a narrative of a man who wants to unburden his soul before his execution, he narrates the story of his life in the most simple and honest manner. So, it is up to the readers to pick up the themes and clues to what lead to his increasingly violent behaviour. The first trigger seems to be the alcohol, â€Å"for what disease is like Alcohol!† As true as it is, but the writer also points out to the human nature of perverseness. The main theme of the story, perverseness, a nature that is innate to human nature for nobody wants to follow the rules and as far as we deviate from following the basic rules the further we deviate from the social behaviour, thus loosing complete control over ourselves, doing things that lead to dangerous consequences. â€Å"Yet I am not more sure that my soul lives, than I a m that perverseness is one of the primitive impulses of the human heart †¦Who has not, a hundred times, found himself committing a vile or a silly action, for no other reason than because he knows he should not? Have we not a perpetual inclination, in the teeth of our best judgment, to violate that which is Law, merely because we understand it to be such?... It was this unfathomable longing of the soul to vex itself - to offer violence to its own nature - to do wrong for the wrong's sake only†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Besides the feeling of perverseness, the protagonist is haunted by his cruelty towards Pluto, a pet who loved him and never despised him. The more he thought about this the deeper he entered into the path to self-destruction. Though he tries to write it off saying he didn’t really care but the fear and guilt implanted on him as the feline phantasm and deepened his anxiety and in order to move from that guilt perverseness deepened its grip on him. It was an escape for h im from the guilt, rather than choosing to speak about it, he tried to escape it and the more he tried to escape it the more he felt threatened. The anxiety that built inside him forced him to take actions that would free him from the threat and in disposing off the cause of threat he had to dispose of anything else that came in his way. And he became a murderer. Yet this only leads to more guilt, even though he refused to accept that he felt burdened his behavior shows he was nervous. It was because of his anxiety that built up because of his guilt that he got caught. It can be concluded that Poe through this story shows the basic nature of human to

Writing Poetry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Writing Poetry - Essay Example Understanding its meaning and rich undertones can be a challenging task for the reader. Several readings and a careful, systematic analysis is called for, in order to fully comprehend its significance. But in the long run the effort is worthwhile as â€Å"The Snow Man† is a remarkable poem and reading it can be an enriching and rewarding experience. The poem begins by introducing the reader to a human, and it is through the eyes of this person that the paradoxical nature of winter, with its cold beauty and innate harshness is revealed. Initially the poet emphasizes the importance of being finely attuned to the nuances of winter at a mental level. Further by dint of prolonged exposure one must be inured to the hardships brought on by the wintry winds. Only then will it be possible for the process of metamorphosis to take place, transforming one into a snowman, which is truly integrated with the magnificent landscape. One evolves into â€Å"†¦the listener, who listens in the snow, / And, nothing himself, beholds/ Nothing that is not there and the nothing that is† (Stevens 9). Speculation as to the events that led to the shaping of the poem may help the reader to better grasp its import. It would appear that Stevens had written this poem, while merely gazing at a wintry landscape and studying its nature. Or, on a more profound note the poem may be his way of giving expression to the realization that the winter of his own life had approached, bringing with it a curious mixture of despondency and hope and the need to shed the unnecessary trappings of civilization, in order to become one with nature, and thereby achieve a purer state of being. This probably explains the sheer intensity of the poem and its theme of learning to let go - giving up everything and thereby acquiring everything which may just turn out to be nothing. From looking at the poem’s antecedents, the reader may divide it into its structural parts for purposes of comprehension. The

Training and Development in Tesco Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Training and Development in Tesco - Assignment Example This is aimed at the analysis of instilling a sense of inclusiveness in the workers as well as their commitment. Since Leahy’s resignation announcement, drastic changes were witnessed in its stock market, which witnessed a sharp drop in the value of Tesco’s shares. From the above, it was evident that Tesco needed to instill confidence in its customers and the public hence there was a re-engineered customer service mechanism in operation for sustenance of Leahy’s transformational leadership style that saw Tesco’s unprecedented rise in the last one and a half decade (Bass,1990) . Tesco has further undertaken transformational change in its organization so as to become the carbon-zero company. This change has been through reducing energy usage and then getting the rest of the energy it uses from renewable sources. In the last few years, a Tesco has developed a supermarket that is zero carbon in its operation, but not its build. Tesco has extended its effort to both its supply chain and its customers’ carbon footprint. Tesco also wants to make it easy for staff to understand how they can change the way they work to promote carbon reduction. More so over the last three years Tesco has committed huge resource in its training and development programme. It has made progress toward achieving this by being the first supermarket to have its apprenticeship training programme accredited. This has been eating achievement for the company. This is in line with its strategy of improving its workforce and getting the best out of it. Tesco further introduced Tesco club card which is a kind of customer loyalty card.  

How Technology Affects the Business Environment Essay Example for Free

How Technology Affects the Business Environment Essay During the last century, the world has been through a technological revolution. We have in few years moved from being a world where it could take months to receive a message, to being a world where it takes microseconds. Within most industries, technology is a very important factor to succeed. Especially in certain industries, like energy, transport and financial services, technological innovations have been vital to make those industries develop into what they are today. Companies are always struggling to acquire better technology, so that they in a more efficient way can produce their products or carry out their services. It is therefore important for companies to keep an eye on new technological innovations. The technological elements of the external environment are a part of the LoNGPEST analysis, which is being used to scan a firms environment, so it in a best possible way can adopt to it. In this essay, I will attempt to explain how technology has been a vital reason for the globalization, and how it has made the world more efficient. There is no doubt that the development of information and communications technology is one of the causes for globalization. The table below shows the reduction in communicating and travelling prices. According to the table, the price of a 3 minutes phone call have been reduced by 98,6%. The reduction in air transport costs per mile is 74%. There is no doubt that such reductions encourage companies to expand geographically. In addition, the rapid growth of the internet has made it possible to share information with the rest of the world in microseconds. Eric Samuels states that one of the industries that has grown because of information technology is the financial service industry. He states that â€Å"delivery of services has become more efficient because of the application of technology.† What he is saying, is that the financial services provided are being done more effective and at a lower cost than before. By using the internet, companies can reach out to the whole world without spending a pound. In addition to claim that the financial service industry has grown due to the information technology, Dr. Nicolas Pologeorgis also states that the industry, since 1998, has gon e through a rapid geographic expansion. This especially applies to wealthy nations, like countries from Europe and USA. He claims that â€Å"customers previously served by local financial institutions are now targeted at a global level.† Dr. Pologeorgis believes that one of the reasons for this, besides deregulation and more trading between countries, is the information technology. Services like ATMs and websites is being used to develop a more efficient relationship between long distance customers and suppliers. A study about globalization of the banking industry, states that improvements in technology â€Å"have facilitated greater geographic reach by allowing institutions to manage larger information flows from more locations and to evaluate and manage risks at lower cost without being geographically close to the customer.† One example of a company from this industry that expanded geographically in the 90’s is Goldman Sachs (GS). I 1990, Robert Ruding and Stephen Friedman decided to focus on GS global operations. During the 1990’s, GS went through a rapid geographical expansion. Today, GS has offices located in all major financial centres around the world. I have made a comparison between the growth in the financial service sector and the use of internet worldwide. It was in the 90’s that the internet use exploded. In 1995, 16 million people were connected to the internet (0,4 of world population). The table below shows that the use of internet exploded about the same time that the financial service industry, according to Pologeorgis, really started expanding geographically. However, it is not only the improvements in communication and information technology that has contributed to a more efficient and globalized world. Another industry that has been affected by improvements in technology the last century is the oil and gas industry. An article made by naturalgas states that â€Å"new innovations have reshaped the industry into a technological leader9.† A report made by the U.S. Department of energy in 1999 shows that if technology had stagnated in 1985, America would have needed twice as many wells to produce the same amount of oil and gas. However, because of technological improvement, we only need half as many wells to produce the same amount in 1999. In 1999, the America used 22 000 less wells to produce the same amount as they did in 1985. A statistical review of world energy made by BP illustrates how much oil and natural gas that has been produced in each country and worldwide from 1965-2010. Worldwide, the total development of oil has increased from 31,806,000 barrels daily in 1965, to 82,095,000 barrels daily in 2010. The development of oil has increased from 96,9 billion cubic feet daily in 1970, to 309 billion cubic feet daily in 2010. The main reason to the increase in production is off course the growing demand, but according to naturalgas it would have been impossible without the improvement in our technology. Consumption of oil increased from 30,783,000 daily in 1965 to 87,382,000 barrels daily in 2010 and consumption of gas increased from 63 billion cubic feet daily in 1965 to 306,6 billion cubic feet daily in 2010. Another industry that has developed because of new technology is the nuclear industry. Numbers taken from NEI shows that 13,5 of the world’s electricity production IN 2010, was provided by nuclear power. Furthermore, NEI states that â€Å"in total, 15 countries relied on nuclear energy to supply at least one-quarter of their total electricity†. According to NEI, one example of a country that is dependent of nuclear energy is France. 74,1 percent of the energy produced in France was generated through nuclear energy. The statistical review published by BP, shows that the consumption of electricity generated from nuclear power has increased tremendously since 1965. In 1965 the global consumption of terra hours has increased from 25,7 in 1965 to 2767,2 terra hours in 2010. FINN UT OM DAILY In this essay, I have tried to show how technology has been a vital part of both the globalization and the development of a more efficient world. I have found that information and communication technology has been important for globalization. Lower costs of travelling and communicating overseas encourage people to expand geographically. In addition, the fact that use of internet has developed into a common thing, especially in developed countries, makes customers able to do services that they could not do before. My essay also shows how the oil and gas industry have become more efficient, and how the nuclear industry has grown due to technological improvements. Reference list: Department for Business Enterprise Regulatory Reform (2008) Globalisation and the changing UK economy, page 3 [online]. Available from: http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file44332.pdf accessed at 22.11.2011. British Petroleum (2011) Historical data [online]. Available from: http://www.bp.com/sectionbodycopy.do?categoryId=7500contentId=7068481 (then click on historical data) Accessed at 23.11.2011. U.S. Department of energy (1999) Environmental benefits of advance oil and exploration and production technology [online]. Available from: http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/oilgas/publications/environ_benefits/4envben.pdf Accessed at 22.11.2011. U.S. Department of Energy http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/oilgas/publications/environ_benefits/3innov.pdf Funding Universe, The Goldman Sachs group INC [online]. Available from: http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/The-Goldman-Sachs-Group-Inc-Company-History.html Accessed at 22.11.2011. Goldman Sachs (2011), who we are – at a glance [online]. Available from: http://www2.goldmansachs.com/who-we-are/at-a-glance/index.html Accessed at 22.11.2011. Internet World Stats (2008), internet growth statistics [online]. Available from: http://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm Accessed at 21.11.2011. Internet World Stats (March 31, 2011), internet usage statistics [online]. Available from: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Accessed at 21.11.2011. Dr. Nicolas Pologeorgis (2009), The Globalization of Financial Services [online]. Available from: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/financial-theory/09/risk-free-rate-return.asp#ixzz1eNeBhksO Accessed at 20.11.2011. Eric Samuels (2011), Marketing of Financial Services [online]. Available from: http://www.measurethat.com/?cat=5 Accessed at 20.11.2011. Natural Gas (2010), Natural Gas and Technology [online]. Available from: http://www.naturalgas.org/environment/technology.asp Accessed at 22.11.2011. Nuclear Energy Institute (2011), world statistics, nuclear energy around the world [online]. Available from: http://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/nuclear_statistics/worldstatistics/ Accessed at 22.11.2011. Wall Street Journal (2010), A Brief History of Goldman Sachs [online]. Available from: http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704671904575193780425970078.html Accessed at 21.11.2011 Allen N. Berger, Qinglei Dai, Steven Ongen, David C. Smith (2002) To What Extent Will the Banking Industry be Globalized?A Study of Bank Nationality and Reach in 20 European Nations, page 3 [online] Available from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTFR/Resources/banking_industry_globalization.pdf Accessed at 22.11.2011.